The war reaches Sudan’s museums

After about a year-and-a-half of a devastating civil war, Sudanese citizens awoke to the alarming news that some of the country's national museums, most notably the Sudan National Museum located in the heart of the capital, Khartoum, had been looted and robbed. These suspicions were further fueled by reports from social media users and sightings of Sudanese artifacts being sold on online trading platforms over the past months. This prompted international organizations, led by UNESCO, to call for stronger mechanisms to prevent the illicit trafficking of these looted artifacts.

The Times: War-torn Sudan’s priceless treasures put up for sale on eBay

eBay removed a link to a Jibbeh tunic from the Mahdist revolution, on sale for $200 with no provenance, that Sudanese archaeologists claimed had come from the national museum.https://t.co/YdLJqcmxPI

— Museum of Looted Antiquities (@MuseumofLoot) September 16, 2024

After a year-and-a-half of a devastating war, Sudanese citizens awoke to the alarming news that some of the country's national museums, including some in the heart of the capital, had been looted and robbed. These suspicions were further fueled by sightings of Sudanese artifacts being sold on online trading platforms.

Sudan is home to numerous museums and archaeological sites containing priceless artifacts dating back thousands of years, alongside temples, tombs, memorials, and statues. Chief among these is the Sudan National Museum in Khartoum, which was first opened in 1904 and then reopened in 1971. It houses relics from Sudan's ancient Nubian kingdoms and the Christian era up to the Islamic kingdoms.

The Sudan National Museum before the outbreak of war

Other notable museums include the Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman, west of the Sudanese capital. Outside of Khartoum, there is the Sultan Ali Dinar Palace Museum in El Fasher, Darfur, as well as the Sultan Bahr al-Din Museum in El Geneina and the Darfur Community Museum in the city of Nyala.

Most of Sudan's archaeological sites are located in Northern and River Nile states, including areas such as Naqa (also known as Naga’a), Musawwarat es-Sufra, al-Bajrawiya, Jebel Barkal, and Sai Island. These areas have remained outside the scope of military operations since the conflict began in mid-April 2023.

The Khalifa House Museum before the outbreak of civil war.

The aftermath: Concerns and official statements

In the immediate aftermath of the reports circulating about the museum's looting, Sudan's former Minister of Culture and Information, Faisal Mohammed Saleh, cast doubt on claims that Sudanese artifacts were being sold online or that these sales were directly tied to the looting of the National Museum. In an article published in Asharq Al-Awsat, Saleh stated that “most specialists and experts who examined the images accompanying these reports in various media outlets and news sites, claiming to show Sudanese artifacts being sold online, agreed that the items do not appear to be from the National Museum's collections. They may not even be part of Sudan’s preserved heritage in any capacity.”

Dr. Abdullatif at the Sudan National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM) confirmed to Raseef22 the reports of a large-scale looting of museums a few months back. She says trucks loaded with archaeological materials were seen leaving the city westward to border regions.

However, he clarified that this denial does not rule out the possibility of looting, as the Sudan National Museum is located in an area that has been a hotspot for military clashes since the war began. The area is currently under the control of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), which have a well-documented history of looting, pillaging, and destroying private and public property, making the likelihood of such an event significant.

Dr. Ikhlas Abdullatif, deputy director of museums at the Sudanese National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM), confirmed to Raseef22 the reports in the media about a large-scale looting of the National Museum a few months back. She stated that large trucks loaded with archaeological materials stored in the museum were seen leaving through the city of Omdurman. Ikhlas added that these trucks headed westward and the items were later distributed to border regions, particularly near South Sudan. She noted that they learned of the trucks’ movement in August 2023.

“The museum collections span all ancient historical eras, from the Stone Age to the Kerma, Napata, and Meroë civilizations, as well as pre-Christian, Christian, and Islamic periods,” added Dr. Ikhlas Abdullatif. “The storage facilities of the Sudan National Museum serve as the main repository for all of Sudan’s artifacts and antiquities.”

The looted museum’s storage facilities are considered the primary repository for all of Sudan’s artifacts and antiquities... The war reaches Sudan’s museums, where looting threatens thousands of years of cultural heritage

Regarding the condition of other museums amid the war, Ikhlas revealed that several museums have also been subjected to looting and/or destruction.

“The Nyala Museum in Darfur had all its collections looted, including museum artifacts, furniture, and display cases. Similarly, the Khalifa House Museum in Omdurman was targeted, with thefts and partial destruction of the building.”

As for the damages reported to the National Museum’s buildings, Ikhlas indicated that no specific information about the extent of the damage has reached them, but, she admits, “it has undoubtedly been affected, just as the Nyala Museum was before it and the Khalifa House Museum after that.”

The second most important museum in Sudan under fire and bombardment

The Sultan Ali Dinar Palace Museum in the city of El Fasher is considered the second most significant museum in Sudan after the National Museum. It showcases artifacts from the era of Sultan Ali Dinar’s rule, which ended in 1916. These include copper drums, the Sultan’s clothing, his throne, gold-plated bowls and utensils, Islamic manuscripts, and antique rifles.

Located in El Fasher, the capital of the Darfur region, this museum sits in a city that has been engulfed in intense battles for months. These violent clashes pit the Joint Forces of the Armed Struggle Movements allied with the Sudanese army against the Rapid Support Forces (RSF).

The museum is in good condition and has not suffered damage since the war began according to Major Ahmed Hussein Mustafa, spokesperson for the Joint Forces of the Armed Struggle Movements. Mustafa asserts that the RSF, whom he accuses of "destroying and looting national heritage," cannot approach the museum because it is located in the center of the city, where his forces contribute to its protection.

Speaking to Raseef22, Mustafa emphasized that much of Sudan's heritage and national treasures have been destroyed or looted by the RSF across the cities it has entered.

"They do not understand the value of these artifacts," he said.

When asked whether artifacts in the Darfur region had been affected by looting or destruction, he replied that, “yes, such as the artifacts in the city of Geneina, particularly in the Sultan Bahr al-Din Palace, which was destroyed and looted. The militia documented this themselves."

“The absence of the state, open borders, and the lack of police in all its units are all factors that facilitate the trafficking of antiquities, drugs, and even human organs. It’s important to note that the movement of illicit activities generally follows two pathways: one directed internally, such as smuggled medications and drugs, and the same pathway often extends outward, typically involving human trafficking, gold smuggling, and selling stolen artifacts.”

The RSF, however, has previously denied accusations of looting the National Museum in Khartoum. In a video broadcasted on their official YouTube channel, an RSF spokesperson, speaking in front of the museum, claimed that its contents were intact and accused those making such allegations of "seeking to tarnish the reputation of the RSF."

The spokesperson insisted that it is the RSF's duty to protect the nation’s heritage and history, pledging that they would not tolerate anyone tampering with it and vowing that no party would harm it.

Similar experiences and international measures

Sudan is not the first country to see its cultural heritage looted and stolen during conflict. Other nations, such as Iraq and Syria, faced similar experiences during war. Iraq endured an American invasion, while Syria was embroiled in a civil war that went on for more than 13 years. Museums in both countries were looted, and their artifacts destroyed. However, many nations intervened, halting the sale of stolen artifacts and confiscating items in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 2199 of 2015, which prohibits trafficking in artifacts from these two countries, as well as the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the prevention of illicit trafficking in cultural property, signed by over 140 nations.

Article 7 of the convention stipulates that the states party “to this Convention undertake the [prohibition] of the import of cultural property stolen from a museum or a religious or secular public monument or similar institution in another State Party. State Parties to the convention shall undertake appropriate measures to confiscate, recover, and return such cultural property.”

Article 13 further emphasizes the responsibility of State Parties to recover stolen items domestically and to collaborate internationally in such efforts.

Sudan is home to numerous museums and archaeological sites containing priceless artifacts dating back thousands of years, alongside temples, tombs, memorials, and statues. Chief among these is the Sudan National Museum in Khartoum, which was first opened in 1904. It houses relics from Sudan's ancient Nubian kingdoms and the Christian era up to the Islamic kingdoms.

Based on these international agreements, a conference on Sudan’s antiquities in September called on the global community and relevant institutions to protect Sudan's museums and cultural heritage. It also urged international support for efforts to recover recently looted artifacts and to enhance international cooperation in monitoring and tracing stolen cultural items. These calls were included in the final statement of the 13th session of the International Conference on Meroitic Studies, held in Münster, Germany, from September 9 to 13, 2023.

The absence of the state exacerbates risks

Discussing the activities of artifact traders during wars and how the parties to the conflict contribute to such crimes, Mohamed Badawi, legal expert and researcher at the African Center for Justice and Peace Studies, notes that weapons, drugs, and trafficking in human organs and antiquities are common industries during wars.

He explains that, in Sudan’s case, the nature of the war, its origins, and its developments all point to the absence of a functioning state capable of providing protection, regulation, and tracking mechanisms.

“The absence of the state, open borders, and the lack of police in all its units are all factors that facilitate the trafficking of antiquities, drugs, and even human organs,” Badawi told Raseef22. “It’s important to note that the movement of illicit activities generally follows two pathways: one directed internally, such as smuggled medications and drugs, and the same pathway often extends outward, typically involving human trafficking, gold smuggling, and selling stolen artifacts.

“In these practices, organized cross-border gangs are active, and their sources can include multiple parties—not just the warring factions—because the nature of this war is internal, involving two parties that were previously in power."

Badawi points out that a member of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) was seen inside the National Museum in Khartoum during the war, as evidenced by a widely circulated video on social media. However, there has been no subsequent update regarding the museum's status.

Rapid Suport Forces (RSF) take control of the National Museum in Khartoum, Sudan

"The party in control of the area where the museum is located bears responsibility for what happens there. As for the Sultan Bahr al-Din Museum, it’s difficult to specifically accuse the RSF, as tribal militias allied with them also participated in the conflict,” continued Badawi. “Professionalism demands considering the possibility of a third party with an interest in the conflict and in destabilizing the transitional period at the time—until proven otherwise. A thorough investigation is needed to identify the group that stormed the museum."

A complex process

Sudan’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites list includes only three locations: the archaeological area of Jebel Barkal and sites in the Napatan region in the north, the archaeological sites of the Meroe Island, which have so far remained outside the conflict zones, as well as the Sanganeb Marine National Park and the Dungonab Bay–Mukkawar Island Marine National Park along the Red Sea coast.

In Sudan’s case, the nature of the war, its origins, and its developments all point to the absence of a functioning state capable of providing protection, regulation, and tracking mechanisms.

The legal tracking of stolen Sudanese antiquities depends on the records maintained by the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM), according to Badawi. These records, which establish ownership, can be used as evidence for reclaiming items if they resurface.

"The theft and concealment of antiquities is a complex process, as it sometimes falls under the scope of money laundering,” Badawi concluded. “Certain individuals may purchase these items and store them in secure, insured locations for either long or short periods."

For this reason, protecting antiquities from theft remains the best course of action.